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Learn about steam

Lerneinheiten zu Grundsätzen der Dampftechnik und Wärmeübertragung

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Learn about steam

In diesen Lerneinheiten werden die Grundsätze der Dampftechnik und der Wärmeübertragung erläutert. Außerdem bieten sie einen umfassenden Leitfaden für bewährte technische Verfahren, der alle Aspekte von Dampf- und Kondensatsystemen behandelt – vom Kesselhaus und der Dampfverteilung bis zum Einsatzort, über die Kondensatrückgewinnung und die Rückführung zum Kessel. Praktisch alle wichtigen Anwendungen und Produkte werden besprochen.

Einführung

Warum ist Dampf heute für viele Industriezweige so wichtig, was kann er leisten, und wie wird diese nachhaltige, natürliche Energiequelle heute erzeugt?

  • Dampf – das Energiemedium

    In diesem Kapitel werden die zahlreichen Vorteile der Nutzung von Dampf als Energiequelle erläutert. Dampf ist effizient, wirtschaftlich, flexibel und einfach zu handhaben und wird von vielen verschiedenen Branchen genutzt.

  • Dampf und das Unternehmen

    Je nachdem, welche Rolle Sie in Ihrem Unternehmen spielen, ist das Thema Dampf für Sie von unterschiedlicher Bedeutung. Von Geschäftsführern und Managern bis hin zu Technikern und Ingenieuren – hier beantworten wir häufige Fragen zu Dampfsystemen.

  • Der Dampf- und Kondensatkreislauf

    Der Dampf- und Kondensatkreislauf erklärt wie Dampf erzeugt wird und warum Faktoren wie Speisewasser, Niveauregelung und Abschlammung wichtig sind. Entdecken Sie, wie der Dampf dorthin gelangt, wo er benötigt wird, und warum die Dampfqualität wichtig ist.

Grundlagen der Dampftechnik und Wärmeübertragung

Die Wissenschaft hinter der modernen Dampftechnik wird anhand von 16 Themen vorgestellt. Diese bilden eine solide Grundlage für das Verständnis der Grundsätze und Praktiken im Zusammenhang mit Dampf.

  • Physikalische Größen

    Ein detaillierter Blick auf die weltweit anerkannten Einheiten, die in der Dampftechnik verwendet werden. Viele werden Ihnen aufgrund ihrer weiten Verbreitung bekannt sein, während wir auch auf die Einheiten eingehen, die speziell für Dampf relevant sind.

  • Was ist Dampf?

    Hier geht es um die Physik, die hinter dem Dampf steckt. Verstehen Sie den Tripelpunkt, die Sattdampftafel, die verschiedenen Trockenheitsgrade und was Entspannungsdampf ist.

  • Überhitzter Dampf

    Erfahren Sie, warum Heißdampf verwendet wird, welche zwei Theorien zur Messung der Effizienz verwendet werden, die Heißdampftabelle sowie die Vor- und Nachteile.

  • Dampfqualität

    Erfahren Sie mehr über die Eigenschaften, die einen effektiven Dampfbetrieb gewährleisten, warum nicht kondensierbare Gase wichtig sind und was ein Wasserschlag ist (und warum er vermieden werden sollte).

  • Wärmeübertragung

    Ein detaillierter Blick auf die Wärmeübertragung, die Wärmeleitfähigkeit verschiedener Materialien, Hindernisse für die Wärmeübertragung und die verschiedenen Gleichungen, die zur Messung der Effizienz der Wärmeübertragung erforderlich sind.

  • Methoden zur Abschätzung des Dampfverbrauches

    Entscheidend für ein effizientes System ist, dass wir die Optionen für die Schätzung Ihres Dampfbedarfs sowohl für Anwendungen mit als auch ohne Durchfluss untersuchen.

  • Messung des Dampfverbrauches

    Es gibt drei Möglichkeiten, den Dampfverbrauch zu berechnen: Durchflussmesser, Kondensatpumpe und Kondensatsammlung.

  • Die Wärmeleistung

    Warum die Wärmewerte Ihres Geräts nicht unbedingt als bare Münze genommen werden können und welche Faktoren Sie bei der Interpretation der Werte berücksichtigen müssen.

  • Der Energieverbrauch von Tanks und Behältern

    Tanks und Fässer werden häufig zur Aufnahme von Flüssigkeiten verwendet und sind entweder offen oder geschlossen. Hier sehen wir uns an, wie Sie die benötigte Energiemenge für verschiedene Situationen berechnen können.

  • Rohrheizschlangen- und Mantelbeheizung

    In diesem Modul wird die indirekte Erwärmung von Flüssigkeiten behandelt, einschließlich der Auslegung, Steuerung und Entwässerung von Rohrheizschlangen und Dampfheizmänteln sowie der Berechnung der Wärmeübertragung.

  • Kessel- und Tankbeheizung über Dampfinjektion

    Bei der gebräuchlichsten Methode zur Beheizung von Kesselspeisebehältern wird die Wärme durch direkten Kontakt zwischen Dampf und der Flüssigkeit übertragen. Die erforderliche Dampfmenge und die Faktoren, die die Wärmeübertragungsrate beeinflussen können, werden hier behandelt.

  • Dampfverbrauch von Rohrleitungen und Lufterhitzern

    In diesem Abschnitt wird untersucht, wie sich die dampfführenden Rohre auf die Effizienz des Systems auswirken. Wir betrachten den Unterschied zwischen Aufwärm- und Betriebslast und die Berechnungen, die zur Messung des Wärmeverlusts erforderlich sind. Wir befassen uns auch mit Luftheizungsanlagen und wie diese zu bewerten sind.

  • Dampfverbrauch von Wärmetauschern

    In diesem Abschnitt werden verschiedene Arten von Wärmetauschern erläutert und verglichen, der Dampfverbrauch berechnet und weitere Fragen wie die Bedeutung der Anfahrleistung geklärt.

  • Dampfverbrauch von Anlagenteilen

    Dampf hat viele andere Verwendungszwecke. In diesem Modul befassen wir uns mit Heizregistern, Durchlauferhitzern, Warmwasserspeichern, Trockenzylindern, Pressen und Begleitheizungsleitungen. Für jede dieser Anwendungen wird untersucht, wie der Dampfverbrauch geschätzt werden kann.

  • Entropie – Grundverständnis

    Ein praktischer Ansatz, um zu verstehen, was Entropie ist, wie sie gemessen werden kann und warum Entropie für die Dampftechnik so wichtig ist.

  • Entropie – Anwendung in der Praxis

    Erfahren Sie, wie Temperatur-Entropie- und Enthalpie-Entropie-Diagramme Ihnen helfen können zu verstehen, wie die kinetische Energie in Dampf funktioniert und warum das Verständnis von Regelventilen so wichtig ist.

The boiler house

Key to the generation of steam is, of course, the boiler house. This section looks in detail at boilers themselves, issues like feedwater conditioning and water levels, and how the boiler house can best be run efficiently.

  • Introduction

    Factors to consider when choosing boilers, from local regulations, fuel options, and the various pros and cons associated with them.

  • Shell Boilers

    A survey of various types of shell boilers, both wet and dry back. The development of the Lancashire boiler, the arrival of the packaged boiler, through to the reverse flame, or thimble boiler. We also look at the pressure and output limitations of shell boilers.

  • Water Tube Boilers

    How water-tube boilers work, variations using the same principles (drum boilers and the Stirling boiler), and their advantages and disadvantages. We also look at combined heat and power plants (CHP), and combined cycle plants.

  • Miscellaneous Boiler Types Economisers and Superheaters

    Used when steam isn't required all the time, and why economisers and superheaters are used.

  • Boiler Ratings

    The three commonly used methods for measuring boiler outputs, and the equations you will need to calculate them.

  • Boiler Efficiency and Combustion

    How the efficiency of boilers is worked out, and a survey of the different options for burners, their controls, and impact on overall effectiveness.

  • Boiler Fittings and Mountings

    To keep your boiler operating safely and efficiently a range of other valves, controls, and accessories are needed. Here we explain the importance of each.

  • Steam Headers and Off Takes

    Various alternatives to boiler layouts, their smooth operation, the importance of warm-up, and making sure steam is distributed properly.

  • Water Treatment Storage and Blowdown for Steam Boilers

    An examination of the many aspects of water quality and how they might affect steam boilers.

  • Water for the Boiler

    Options for treating water before its use in steam boilers, why carryover should be avoided, and the importance of water quality to different types of boilers are dealt with.

  • The Feedtank and Feedwater Conditioning

    Considerations and calculations needed to optimise your boiler feedtanks, pumps, and piping. We also examine deaerators and other important elements to think about when designing an efficient system.

  • Controlling TDS in the Boiler Water

    See how to measure TDS, maintain the correct level, and how automatic TDS control can lead to cost and efficiency savings.

  • Heat Recovery from Boiler Blowdown TDS Control Only

    Find out how much energy can be saved, and captured, when blowdown is used to control TDS. Both flash steam and heat exchangers are looked at.

  • Bottom Blowdown

    The term used to describe the process of removing suspended solids from a boiler. We look at how this is done, the options for blowdown, and regulations controlling its operation.

  • Water Levels in Steam Boilers

    Crucial to their safe and efficient running, boiler water levels must be monitored and adjusted if necessary. We look at why this is important, and the effect of different loads on levels.

  • Methods of Detecting Water Level in Steam Boilers

    Learn how level controls, low and high water alarms work, and the differences between conductivity and capacitance probes. Float controls and differential pressure cells are also reviewed.

  • Automatic Level Control Systems

    Here we take a close look at how boiler water levels may be automatically detected, and where problems might occur.

  • Water Level Alarms

    Too much, or too little water in your boiler is something that must be avoided. This section looks at your options for warning of either situation.

  • Installation of Level Controls

    How to accurately gauge the water level in boilers, plus the details that will determine which method will be best for your system.

  • Testing Requirements in the Boiler House

    A summary of how boiler testing is regularly carried out, with specific reference to the UK's regulations.

  • Pressurised Deaerators

    A comprehensive look at how these remove unwanted gases from steam system water, and the principles and practices of their use.

  • Steam Accumulators

    Everything you need to know about steam accumulators, from assessing requirements, sizing, design, and operation, to controls, fittings, and injectors. Comprehensive calculations are also included.

Flowmetering

If you want to know exactly how much steam your processes are using, and how much they cost, flowmetering will play a pivotal role. This section details everything you'll need to know, from theory to techniques and practical applications.

  • Fluids and Flow

    An examination of the fundamental principles behind measuring the flow of steam, including density, viscosity, velocity, the Reynolds number, and flow regimes.

  • Principles of Flowmetering

    An in-depth look at the science behind flowmetering, the equations used to maximise its effectiveness, and how ultrasound is used to measure flowrate.

  • Types of Steam Flowmeter

    Discover the seven types of flowmeter used to measure steam and condensate. We consider how each works, their advantages and disadvantages, and where they are often found.

  • Instrumentation

    Here we break down how flowmeters interpret data, why pressure variations must be considered, and understand how dryness fractions and superheat can impact accuracy.

  • Installation

    With over a third of flowmetering problems stemming from poor installation, it's important to get the design and installation right. This section will give you a checklist for selecting the right flowmeters, and a comprehensive set of recommendations for their installation.

Basic control theory

How processes are controlled is fundamental to a safe, stable, and accurate system. In this section, we closely examine the theory behind control, why you might choose one option over another, and how to go about installing and commissioning control systems.

  • An introduction to controls

    Here we investigate why automatic controls are more reliable than manual options, and look at how controls deal with processes that use steam, water, compressed air, and hot oils.

  • Basic Control Theory

    Put simply, the two basic control options are either on/off or continuous control. This module looks in detail at the implications of each, paying close attention to the three elements of continuous control: proportional, integral, and derivative.

  • Control loops and dynamics

    What is a control loop, what are the differences between control loop options (open, closed, single, multi, cascade), what happens in each control loop, and various process reactions are all answered in this topic.

  • Choice and Selection of Controls

    How to Choose Which Controls to Use? An overview of your options (self-activating, pneumatic, electric, electro-pneumatic), a look at valves and actuators, and choices of controllers. Guided by consideration of safety, stability, and accuracy.

  • Installation and commissioning of controls

    A detailed look at the elements involved in the installation and commissioning of controls, including how the Ziegler-Nicholls method can be used for setting controllers.

  • Computers in Controls

    Looking at the evolution of IT helping improve control, up to the introduction of fieldbus technology in streamlining operations.

Control hardware: Electric/pneumatic actuation

How control valves work, their correct sizing, and the role of actuators, positioners, controllers and sensors in steam and water systems.

  • Control Valves

    Get to know the different types of control valves used in steam and fluid systems. The differences between linear and rotary valves, with two or three-ports, is simply explained using animated diagrams.

  • Control Valve Capacity

    Valves work by altering either flowrate or differential pressure. Gain an understanding of the flow coefficient, and how it is used to compare valve performance.

  • Control Valve Sizing For Water Systems

    Here you will find out how to correctly size valves using either equations or charts. The difference between imperial and metric measurements is explained, how two- and three-port valves differ in how they operate, and why valve authority, cavitation, and flashing need to be considered.

  • Control Valve Sizing For Steam Systems

    Your complete guide to unravelling the complicated subject of steam control valve sizing. Find out how to use formulae and steam tables to make sure you have the right sized valve, the issues you may need to consider (velocity, noise, erosion, drying, and superheated steam), together with a checklist of the 20 major factors to assess your system.

  • Control Valve Characteristics

    Different types of valve plug have different flow characteristics. This section gives you a thorough understanding of the three main types (fast opening, linear, and equal percentage), and using detailed case studies, how the flowrates are calculated.

  • Control Valve Actuators and Positioners

    This section looks at how actuators enable valves to work, the differences between pneumatic and electric versions, how reverse acting and direct acting actuators work, and why positioners are sometimes also essential for safe and accurate control.

  • Controllers and Sensors

    What they are, when to use them, and the many variations available. We also look at advanced control systems using the HART protocol and fieldbus standards.

Control hardware: self-acting actuation

Why self-acting controls are needed, the various options available, and their practical application in controlling temperature and pressure in steam and water systems.

  • Self-acting Temperature Controls

    The differences between vapour tension systems and liquid-filled systems are explained, with animated illustrations showing how different options work. We also look at where and why self-actuating temperature controls are used.

  • Typical Self-acting Temperature Control Valves and Systems

    These systems are a vital safety feature. They operate by either adjustment at a sensor, an actuator, or by remote operation. We also examine high limit cut-out devices and the many environments where they are used.

  • Self-acting Pressure Controls and Applications

    Usually used to reduce the amount of steam pressure in a system, self-acting pressure controls tend to be either direct acting or pilot operated. This section illustrates both, looking at choices that determine where each would be used. We also look at pressure maintaining valves, and why these are sometimes needed.

Control applications

This section discusses in detail the ways in which temperature, pressure, flow, and level are controlled in steam systems. We also look at why this is done, and the industries that use these controls.

  • Pressure Control Applications

    In this comprehensive review of the methods used to control steam pressure, we look at the advantages and disadvantages of each, the situations where they are usually employed, and important points to note. We also touch upon alternative methods sometimes used.

  • Temperature Control Applications

    When it is the temperature that must be controlled, there are five main methods for doing so. Here we look at their advantages and disadvantages, and where they are usually used. We also survey some of the other options for controlling steam temperature.

  • Level Control Applications

    An overview of the different types of level control systems used, with particular focus on float and solid probe types, most commonly used in the steam and condensate loop. There is a focus on conductivity and capacitance level controls.

  • Control Installations

    How and where your control system is installed with have a marked effect on its accuracy and lifetime. Here we look at the factors to consider to ensure it works at its best for as long as possible.

Safety valves

This section answers the questions: what is a safety valve, what options are available, and how to choose the right one, and safely install it.

  • Safety Valves

    Safety valves are essential devices used to protect from steam overpressure. Here we look at how this might happen, the range of types available, how they work, and the regulatory frameworks for them.

  • Types of Safety Valve

    Discover in detail the many variations of safety valves, how they operate (including equations illustrating the force needed to do so), and diagrams of each type of valve.

  • Safety Valve Selection

    Including the criteria you will need to consider, how safety valves are properly installed, and where, and the difference between MAWP and MAAP.

  • Safety Valve Sizing

    A detailed look at how to size valves according to various standards, with diagrams and equations for each case. We also look at more complicated solutions like two-phase flow and superheat.

  • Safety Valve Installation

    For it to work correctly, it's vital you know all the factors to make the right decision. Everything you need to know is covered here.

  • Alternative Plant Protection Devices and Terminology

    They might be the most effective, but safety valves are not the only way you can deal with excess pressure. This section looks at the alternatives and gives a full glossary of terms related to this topic.

Steam distribution

It's crucial your steam reaches the point of use in the most cost-effective, energy-efficient way possible. Sizing of pipes, key drainage techniques, how your piping is supported and deals with expansion, venting, and heat transfer calculations are dealt with in this section.

  • Introduction to Steam Distribution

    Here we examine what is the steam and condensate loop, the working pressure of a system, and see why pressure-reducing valves are used.

  • Pipes and Pipe Sizing

    Covering the international standards, schedule numbers, piping materials, and detailed information on the equations, charts, and tables needed to pick the correct piping. Includes comprehensive appendices.

  • Steam Mains and Drainage

    We look at the overall layout, condensate drain points, using branch lines, steam separators and strainers, how to calculate your running load, and what to look out for to avoid waterhammer.

  • Pipe Expansion and Support

    Because they are carrying hot fluids or steam, allowance must be made for expansion. Here we cover the various methods of making sure your pipes are properly installed.

  • Air Venting Heat Losses and a Summary of Various Pipe Related Standards

    How to effectively remove air and noncondensable gases from a steam system, and how to calculate, and reduce, heat losses from pipework. Includes relevant international standards covering the subject.

Steam traps and steam trapping

These 15 sections cover every aspect of steam traps: why are steam traps needed, how do steam traps work, what are the different types and where are they best used? We will also look at how to select the right steam trap, air venting, and why it is so important to maintain your steam traps.

  • Introduction - Why Steam Traps?

    The main job of a steam trap is to remove condensate, air, and any noncondensable gases from a steam system whilst minimising the escape of live steam. Here we look at why this is necessary, how they do this, their basic operation, and the standards applied to steam traps.

  • Thermostatic Steam Traps

    These work by responding to the surrounding steam temperature. There are three main types: liquid expansion traps, bimetallic traps, and balanced pressure traps. We look at each, with animated diagrams showing how they work, and the pros and cons of each.

  • Mechanical Steam Traps

    These use the different densities between steam and water (condensate) to operate. There are two main types: the ball float trap, and the inverted bucket trap. Able to remove large volumes of condensate, mechanical steam traps are used in a wide range of process applications. Discover how each works, and their advantages and disadvantages.

  • Thermodynamic Steam Traps

    It is a very robust form of trap, with only one moving part, that operates using the dynamic effect of flash steam as it passes through the trap. We examine the traditional thermodynamic steam trap, the impulse type, the labyrinth type, and finally fixed orifice traps. How they're made, their uses and pros and cons are discussed.

  • Considerations for Selecting Steam Traps

    Other things to take into account when choosing steam traps: waterhammer, dirt, strainers, steam locking, group trapping, diffusers, and special needs, like vacuum drainage and trapping for temperature-controlled processes.

  • Selecting Steam Traps - Canteen Equipment Oil Transfer Storage Hospital Equipment

    Giving tables and advice on picking the right options for these uses, from boiling pans to bulk storage tanks, to autoclaves and sterilisers.

  • Selecting Steam Traps - Industrial Dryers

    Advice on choosing traps for hot air dryers, drying coils, multi-bank pipe dryers, drying cylinders, and multi-cylinder dryers.

  • Selecting Steam Traps - Laundries and Presses

    Looking at the right steam traps for garment presses, ironers and calenders, tumble dryers, dry cleaning machines, and various types of presses, including tyre presses.

  • Selecting Steam Traps - Process Equipment

    Advice on the ideal steam traps for fixed and tilting boiling pans, retorts, industrial autoclaves, industrial digesters, hot tables, brewing coppers, evaporators, and vulcanisers.

  • Selecting Steam Traps - Space Heating Equipment

    Best and acceptable alternative choices of steam traps for calorifiers, heater batteries, radiant panels and strips, radiators and convection cabinets, unit heaters and air batteries, and overhead pipe coils.

  • Selecting Steam Traps - Steam Mains Tanks and Vats Pressure Reducing Valves

    Covering aspects of the steam mains operations, including horizontal runs, drain pocket dimensions, separators, steam header drainage, and terminal ends. We also look at process vats and small coil-heated tanks.

  • Air Venting Theory

    Because air is an insulator, it works against the efficient heat transfer of a steam system. This section looks at how to detect air in the system, and how to remove it effectively.

  • Air Venting Applications

    Examining many of the cases where air venting will be needed, including the steam mains, jacketed pans, and rotating cylinders. We also consider the use of steam trap bypasses, and how thermostatic steam traps can also be used as air vents.

  • Testing and Maintenance of Steam Traps

    Examining routine maintenance, replacement of internal parts, and potentially replacing steam traps. However, accurately identifying issues with steam traps requires expert knowledge, and we look at manual, remote, and automatic monitoring to determine if there actually is a problem.

  • Energy Losses in Steam Traps

    Often steam traps are blamed for energy losses simply to gain a new sale for an alternative. This section honestly looks at the three types of main steam trap and demonstrates just how little energy steam traps use. trap types.​

Pipeline ancillaries

Additional components are often left out of steam systems to reduce costs. This can be a false economy, since isolation valves, check valves, strainers, separators, gauges, sight glasses, and vacuum breakers are all important to an energy-efficient steam system.

  • Isolation Valves - Linear Movement

    Used to stop the flow of fluid into an area of the system, we look at the different types of gate valves, globe valves, piston valves, and diaphragm valves. We also look at options for valve stems, and how to seal them.

  • Isolation Valves - Rotary Movement

    Sometimes known as quarter-turn valves, we delve into ball valves and their various options, and butterfly valves. This section also gives details on selecting isolation valves, including their sizing, with comprehensive charts and the equations for getting to the right choice.

  • Check Valves

    Also known as non-return valves, a check valve will only allow flow in one direction. The main types used for steam are lift, swing, wafer, and disc check valves. Ball and diaphragm check valves are usually used in fluid applications. Formulae for calculating pressure drops are also given.

  • Strainers

    Usually classified as either Y-type or basket type, strainers prevent damage from debris in flowing liquids or gases, so reducing plant downtime and unplanned maintenance costs. Here we take a detailed look at the options, and how to select the right size, depending upon your processes.

  • Separators

    Important tools in reducing 'wet steam', separators come in various forms. We look at baffle, cyclonic, and coalescence separators, detailing which option to choose, and how to calculate the dryness fraction.

  • Gauges Sight Glasses Vacuum Breakers

    Though relatively small in size, these play a big part in the smooth running of energy-efficient steam systems. We examine what each does, and how they work.

Condensate removal

Vital to the efficiency and long life of a heat exchanger, this section looks in detail at how they operate, what ‘stall’ is, and the best ways of maximising your efficiency.

Condensate recovery

Getting condensate back to the boiler house is key to sustainable operations. This section looks at pipe sizing and layout for drain lines, discharge lines, and pumped lines. Lift, backpressure, and the reduction of costs by using flash steam are also covered.

  • Introduction to Condensate Recovery

    Why condensate recovery and return are useful, saving energy costs, reducing environmental discharges, and keeping water treatment costs down. Covers calculations for potential savings.

  • Layout of Condensate Return Lines

    A fully-illustrated, detailed look at the design and layout of condensate return pipework. This includes the effect of trap types used, how different pressures impact the system, and the discharge of condensate into flooded mains.

  • Sizing Condensate Return Lines

    How to size condensate lines to and from steam traps, with examples and formulae needed using the condensate pipe sizing chart.

  • Pumping Condensate from Vented Receivers

    This comprehensive introduction covers pumping terminology, the operation, application and various benefits of electric centrifugal and mechanical condensate pumps. There are sizing examples for both pumps and pump discharge lines.

  • Flash Steam

    What is flash steam, how much is available, how it can be recovered, controlling flash steam, and its applications.

  • Lifting Condensate and Contaminated Condensate

    Here we look at moving condensate to a higher level return line, and ways to cope with contaminated condensate.

Desuperheating

We examine what superheated steam is, and why it's sometimes necessary to desuperheat it. We also cover the types of desuperheater available, where they're used and how to install them.

  • Basic Desuperheater Types

    First we cover the issues to think about when selecting a desuperheater, such as turndown ratio. Then we survey the types of desuperheater available, including indirect contact, direct contact, water spray, and axial injection desuperheaters. Consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of each is offered.

  • Basic Desuperheating Theory

    The difference between superheated and desuperheated steam is detailed, where both types of steam are typically used, and calculations for desuperheating.

  • Other Types of Desuperheater

    A range of other desuperheaters are commonly used. Here we look at venturi type, steam atomising, variable orifice, combined pressure control valve and desuperheater, and compare the options alongside one another.

  • Typical Installations

    There are a range of factors that must be considered. This section looks at key issues, including the properties of the cooling water itself, the installation of the desuperheater, pressure control, and sensor positioning.